從米諾斯宮殿到帕德嫩神廟，再到民主雅典的衰落。三千年裡，希臘人發明了西方文明，也親眼看著它自我毀滅。
From Minoan palaces to the Parthenon, then the collapse of democratic Athens. Three millennia in which Greeks invented Western civilization, then watched it destroy itself.
在互動時間軸上瀏覽 → Open in interactive timeline →
克里特島 Minoan 文明歐洲史上最早的高度文化，以 Knossos 宮殿群、線性文字 A、壁畫、迷宮神話聞名。-1628 年 Santorini 火山爆發衝擊、-1450 年被 Mycenaean 人取代。「歐洲之母文化」。
The Minoan civilization on Crete was Europe's first high culture — famed for the Knossos palace complex, Linear A script, frescoes, and the Labyrinth myth. Battered by the 1628 BC Santorini eruption and replaced by Mycenaeans by 1450 BC. The 'mother culture of Europe.'
希臘青銅時代最重要的文明，特洛伊戰爭的歷史背景，後因「海上民族」入侵而崩潰，進入希臘黑暗時代。
The dominant Greek Bronze Age civilization; the historical context of the Trojan War; collapsed due to the Sea Peoples invasion, leading to the Greek Dark Ages.
希臘城邦聯合攻打特洛伊城，這場傳奇戰爭被荷馬記錄於《伊里亞德》中。
Greek city-states unite to besiege Troy, a legendary conflict immortalized by Homer in the Iliad.
邁錫尼文明崩潰後，希臘進入人口銳減、文字失傳的黑暗時代，逐漸轉型到鐵器使用，為後來的古典希臘文明奠基。
After Mycenaean collapse, Greece entered a dark age of population decline and lost literacy, gradually transitioning to iron use before the classical Greek civilization emerged.
約公元前1200年，地中海東部文明（邁錫尼、赫梯、烏加里特、埃及）在數十年內幾乎同時崩潰，原因至今成謎，可能涉及海洋民族入侵、乾旱、地震和貿易網絡瓦解。
Around 1200 BCE, Eastern Mediterranean civilizations (Mycenae, Hittites, Ugarit, Egypt) collapsed nearly simultaneously within decades — one of history's greatest mysteries, possibly involving the Sea Peoples, drought, earthquakes and trade collapse.
荷馬創作《伊里亞德》和《奧德賽》，奠定西方文學的基礎。
Homer composes the Iliad and Odyssey, foundational works of Western literature.
Elis 地區在奧林匹亞 Zeus 神殿前舉辦首屆泛希臘運動會。每 4 年一次，參賽者僅男性希臘人。比賽期間各城邦奧運休戰。希臘紀年以此為元年。延續 1170 年至 393 年被 Theodosius 禁為異教。
The first Pan-Hellenic games were held at Olympia before the temple of Zeus in Elis. Held every four years, participants were only Greek men; city-states observed the Olympic Truce during games. The Greek calendar started from this year. The games lasted 1,170 years, banned as pagan by Theodosius in 393.
雅典執政官 Solon 頒 Seisachtheia「解除重擔」取消債務、廢奴役債農、依財產分 4 級公民、重構法律。終結貴族壟斷，為 -508 Cleisthenes 民主改革奠基。
Athenian archon Solon proclaimed 'Seisachtheia' (shaking off burdens) — canceling debts, abolishing debt slavery, stratifying citizens into four property classes, and rewriting the law code. Ending aristocratic monopoly, his reforms laid the groundwork for Cleisthenes's 508 BC democratic revolution.
希臘數學家與哲學家，畢達哥拉斯定理、數字的神秘性與音律的數學關係，影響西方思想深遠。
Greek mathematician and philosopher; the Pythagorean theorem, the mysticism of numbers, and the mathematics of musical harmony.
波斯王居魯士大帝頒布詔令，允許被巴比倫擄走的猶太人返回迦南，重建耶路撒冷聖殿，被猶太人稱為解放者。
Persian King Cyrus the Great decreed that Jews exiled by Babylon could return to Canaan and rebuild Jerusalem's Temple, hailed by Jews as a liberator.
雅典 Dionysia 祭典，Thespis 首次以演員身份與合唱團對話，被視為西方戲劇史上第一位「演員」(actor 英文 thespian 源自此)。Dionysia 戲劇節後成古希臘最重要文化活動，孕育 Aeschylus、Sophocles、Euripides。
At the Athenian Dionysia festival, Thespis first stepped out of the chorus to dialogue as an actor — regarded as the first actor in Western drama (the English 'thespian' derives from him). The Dionysia became ancient Greece's most important cultural event, nurturing Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.
被擄歸回的猶太人重建耶路撒冷聖殿，第二聖殿時期是猶太教發展的關鍵階段，直至70年被羅馬摧毀。
Jews returning from Babylon rebuild the Jerusalem Temple; the Second Temple Period is crucial for Jewish development until its destruction by Rome in 70 CE.
克利斯提尼在雅典建立世界上最早的民主制度，公民直接參與城邦治理。
Cleisthenes establishes the world's first democracy in Athens, where citizens directly participate in governance.
-508 Cleisthenes 民主改革到 -322 馬其頓滅雅典民主，186 年間雅典成西方文明思想源頭：民主、戲劇(Sophocles/Euripides)、哲學(Socrates/Plato/Aristotle)、歷史(Herodotus/Thucydides)、建築(Parthenon)。
From Cleisthenes's 508 BC democratic reforms to the Macedonian suppression of Athenian democracy in 322 BC, 186 years of Classical Athens birthed Western civilization: democracy, drama (Sophocles, Euripides), philosophy (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle), history (Herodotus, Thucydides), and architecture (Parthenon).
波斯大流士一世派兵入侵希臘，雅典軍隊在馬拉松平原以少勝多擊敗波斯，是波斯帝國首次遭遇重大挫敗，也是西方文明抵禦東方帝國的象徵性勝利。
Darius I's Persian forces invaded Greece but were defeated by Athenian soldiers at Marathon — Persia's first major defeat and a symbolic victory of Western civilization against eastern empire.
希臘城邦聯盟抵抗波斯帝國入侵，薩拉米斯海戰成為決定性勝利，保護了西方文明。
Greek city-states repel the Persian Empire's invasion; the Battle of Salamis is a decisive victory protecting Western civilization.
8 月斯巴達王 Leonidas 率 300 精銳加數千希臘聯軍於溫泉關抵禦 Xerxes 波斯大軍 3 日。全軍戰死但拖延波斯進軍，為希臘海軍 Salamis 海戰勝利爭取時間。希臘自由意志對抗暴政的永恆象徵。
In August, Spartan King Leonidas and 300 elites plus a few thousand Greek allies held Thermopylae against Xerxes's Persian army for three days. All died, but the delay gave the Greek navy time for the decisive Salamis victory. An eternal symbol of Greek freedom resisting tyranny.
西方醫學之父，將醫學從迷信提升為理性學科，希波克拉底誓詞至今仍是醫學倫理的基礎。
Father of Western medicine; elevated medicine from superstition to rational discipline; the Hippocratic Oath remains medicine's ethical foundation.
雅典衛城的帕德嫩神廟是古希臘建築的頂峰，多立克柱式的完美典範，影響西方建築兩千年。
The Parthenon on the Acropolis is the pinnacle of ancient Greek architecture — the perfect Doric exemplar, influencing Western architecture for 2,000 years.
公元前 447-432 Phidias 主持雅典衛城 Parthenon 神殿，古希臘古典藝術與建築巔峰。
From 447-432 BC, Phidias led the Parthenon's construction on the Acropolis—the apex of Classical Greek art and architecture.
4 月雅典(海權) vs 斯巴達(陸權)27 年大戰爆發，全希臘捲入。430 年雅典瘟疫(Pericles 死)、-415 Sicily 遠征慘敗、-404 Athens 投降。希臘城邦體系耗竭，為馬其頓崛起開路。Thucydides 寫下史上首部科學戰史。
In April, Athens (sea power) and Sparta (land power) began a 27-year war that engulfed all Greece. The 430 BC Athenian plague killed Pericles; the 415 BC Sicilian Expedition was a disaster; Athens surrendered in 404 BC. The Greek polis system exhausted itself, paving the way for Macedonia. Thucydides wrote history's first scientific war history.
公元前 431 年春，斯巴達盟邦 Thebes 偷襲雅典盟邦 Plataea，27 年大戰開打；Thucydides 寫史見證。
In spring 431 BC, Theban allies of Sparta attacked Plataea (Athens ally), starting 27 years of war—chronicled by Thucydides.
公元前 430-426 斯巴達封城期間，瘟疫（可能為傷寒）殺死雅典 1/4 人口，Pericles 次年殉疫。
During Sparta's siege (430-426 BC), a plague (possibly typhus) killed a quarter of Athens's population; Pericles died of it in 429.
西方哲學最重要的奠基者之一，創立學院（Academia），理念論影響西方思想兩千年。
One of the most important founders of Western philosophy; established the Academy; the Theory of Forms influenced Western thought for two millennia.
公元前 421/3 雅典 Nicias 與斯巴達簽 50 年和約，實際 6 年後即破裂；雙方互歸俘虜。
In March 421 BC, Athenian Nicias and Sparta signed a 50-year peace (lasted only 6); both sides exchanged prisoners.
公元前 415/6 雅典派 Alcibiades 率 40,000 兵 134 船遠征 Syracuse，史上最大希臘遠征軍。
In June 415 BC, Athens dispatched Alcibiades with 40,000 troops on 134 ships to conquer Syracuse—the largest Greek expedition ever.
-415 年雅典 Alcibiades 力主遠征敘拉古以斷斯巴達補給線。-413 年 Nicias 率 4 萬人、200 艦隊全軍覆沒於 Syracuse。雅典精銳一夕失盡，伯羅奔尼撒戰爭天秤倒向斯巴達。Thucydides 稱希臘史最大災難。
In 415 BC, Athenian Alcibiades pushed for a Syracuse expedition to sever Sparta's supplies. In 413 BC, Nicias's 40,000 troops and 200 ships were annihilated at Syracuse. Athens's best forces were lost overnight; the Peloponnesian War's balance tilted to Sparta. Thucydides called it Greece's greatest disaster.
公元前 413/9 雅典遠征軍在 Syracuse 被斯巴達+Syracuse 聯軍圍殲，Nicias 處決，雅典元氣大傷。
In Sep 413 BC, the Athenian expedition was annihilated at Syracuse; Nicias was executed—a catastrophic blow to Athens.
公元前 405/9 斯巴達 Lysander 在 Hellespont 突襲毀雅典艦隊 170 艘，雅典失海、糧道斷。
In Sep 405 BC, Spartan Lysander surprised and destroyed Athens's 170-ship fleet at Aegospotami, cutting the grain supply.
公元前 404/4 雅典飢餓投降，Lysander 命拆 Long Walls 連接 Piraeus 的城牆；Sparta 霸權建立。
In April 404 BC, starving Athens surrendered; Lysander ordered the Long Walls to Piraeus torn down. Sparta's hegemony began.
雅典民主恢復後 Socrates 70 歲被控「腐化青年」「不敬神」，陪審團 501 人以 281:220 判死。拒絕逃亡、飲毒芹汁而死。柏拉圖《申辯》《斐多》記載。西方哲學史轉捩點：理念論、辯證法由此鋪路。
After Athenian democracy's restoration, 70-year-old Socrates was charged with 'corrupting the youth' and 'impiety.' A 501-jury convicted 281-220 and sentenced him to death. Refusing to escape, he drank hemlock. Plato's 'Apology' and 'Phaedo' record it — a turning point in Western philosophy, opening the way to Ideas and dialectic.
百科全書式學者，建立邏輯學、生物學、政治學、倫理學等學科體系，是古代最有影響力的思想家。
The encyclopedic scholar who established logic, biology, politics, and ethics as disciplines — antiquity's most influential thinker.
Philip II 23 歲即位，改革馬其頓軍制創薩里沙長矛方陣、兵團(phalanx)、混合兵種戰術。24 年內征服巴爾幹、-338 年 Chaeronea 擊敗希臘聯軍。將希臘統一為「柯林斯聯盟」，為兒子 Alexander 打下征服波斯根基。
At 23, Philip II became king and reformed Macedonian military — creating the sarissa pike phalanx and combined-arms tactics. In 24 years he conquered the Balkans; at Chaeronea (338 BC) he defeated the Greek coalition. He unified Greece as the League of Corinth, laying the foundation for his son Alexander's Persian conquest.
8 月 2 日 Philip II 與 18 歲 Alexander 父子擊敗雅典-底比斯聯軍於 Chaeronea。神聖軍團 300 人全戰死。希臘城邦獨立自此終結，被納入馬其頓柯林斯聯盟。Demosthenes《金冠演說》哀悼希臘自由。
On August 2, Philip II and his 18-year-old son Alexander defeated the Athens-Thebes coalition at Chaeronea. The Theban Sacred Band of 300 fell to a man. Greek polis independence ended; all were incorporated into the Macedonian League of Corinth. Demosthenes's 'On the Crown' mourned Greek freedom.
馬其頓的亞歷山大大帝東征，建立橫跨歐亞非的帝國，促進希臘文化與東方文化的交融。
Alexander the Great conquers a vast empire from Greece to India, spreading Greek culture and facilitating East-West cultural exchange.
馬其頓王亞歷山大大帝擊敗大流士三世，焚毀波斯波利斯，阿契美尼德波斯帝國滅亡，波斯進入希臘化時代。大流士三世逃亡後被部下所殺，兩百年波斯帝國就此終結。
Alexander the Great defeated Darius III and burned Persepolis, ending the Achaemenid Empire. Darius fled and was killed by his own men, terminating two centuries of Persian dominance.
亞歷山大大帝死至克麗奧帕特拉自殺，293 年間他的繼業者(Diadochi)分天下：Seleucid(敘利亞波斯)、Ptolemy(埃及)、Antigonid(馬其頓希臘)、Attalid(小亞細亞)。希臘文化 Koine 通語、Alexandria 學術、Archimedes/Euclid 科學傳至印度。
From Alexander's death to Cleopatra's suicide, 293 years of Hellenistic kingdoms: Seleucid (Syria-Persia), Ptolemaic (Egypt), Antigonid (Macedon-Greece), Attalid (Anatolia). Greek culture — the Koine lingua franca, Alexandria's scholarship, Archimedes/Euclid's science — spread as far as India.
32 歲早逝於巴比倫，留下橫跨歐亞非的帝國。300 年 Hellenistic 文明擴散希臘語文化至埃及、波斯、印度，為羅馬 / 基督教文明鋪路。
Died at 32 in Babylon. 300-year Hellenistic age spread Greek culture from Egypt to India, paving way for Rome/Christianity.
約前 250 年 Archimedes 在 Syracuse 建立浮力原理、槓桿、圓周率逼近、積分雛形；古代最偉大科學家。
Around 250 BC in Syracuse, Archimedes established buoyancy, levers, π approximation, and proto-integration—antiquity's greatest scientist.
-146 年 Corinth 被羅馬滅、希臘併入羅馬 Achaea 省。541 年間希臘政治臣服，但「被征服的希臘征服了粗野的征服者」(Horace)：羅馬吸收希臘哲學、宗教、藝術、戲劇、建築、教育。395 年帝國分裂，希臘歸東羅馬。
In 146 BC Rome destroyed Corinth and annexed Greece as the Achaea province. For 541 years Greece was politically subject — but 'conquered Greece conquered her rude conqueror' (Horace): Rome absorbed Greek philosophy, religion, art, theatre, architecture, and education. When the empire split in 395, Greece went to the East.
君士坦丁堡陷落後希臘地區全歸鄂圖曼統治 368 年。希臘正教在 millet(宗教自治)制下保存，但穆斯林特權、人頭稅(jizya)、「德夫希爾梅」徵童奴制苦壓希臘人。Phanariot 君堡希臘精英成帝國翻譯、外交官、多瑙河諸侯。
After Constantinople fell, all Greek lands were Ottoman for 368 years. Greek Orthodoxy was preserved under the millet (religious autonomy) system, but Muslim privilege, the jizya poll tax, and the devshirme child levy oppressed Greeks. Phanariot Greek elites of Constantinople served the empire as translators, diplomats, and Danubian princes.
Mehmed II 征服君士坦丁堡後恢復普世牧首職位，建立 Rum Millet(「羅馬族群」)讓希臘正教社群自治：自選牧首、自管宗教法、自收教會稅。希臘人保住語言、宗教、文化，為 19 世紀民族復興保存種子。
After conquering Constantinople, Mehmed II restored the Ecumenical Patriarchate and established the Rum Millet ('Roman community'), granting Greek Orthodox communities autonomy: electing their own patriarch, applying their own religious law, and collecting church taxes. Greeks preserved language, religion, and culture — seeds of 19th-century national revival.
居住君堡 Phanar 區的希臘上層因通古希臘語、拉丁文、現代歐語，17 世紀後被鄂圖曼任命為御譯(Dragoman)、外交官、瓦拉幾亞-摩爾達維亞親王。1711-1821 年間統治多瑙河諸侯國，是希臘人重新進入國際政治的管道。
Upper-class Greeks in Constantinople's Phanar quarter — fluent in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern European languages — from the 17th century were appointed as imperial dragomans (translators), diplomats, and princes of Wallachia-Moldavia. From 1711-1821 they ruled the Danubian principalities, Greeks' pathway back into international politics.
Adamantios Koraes 於巴黎出版希臘古典整理與現代希臘語 Katharevousa（「純化語」）改革，復古希臘遺產、喚醒民族意識。影響希臘獨立運動一代知識分子。與 Rigas Feraios 的革命詩歌並列希臘民族覺醒雙柱。
Adamantios Koraes in Paris published editions of Greek classics and reformed modern Greek as 'Katharevousa' (purified language), reviving classical heritage and awakening national consciousness. He influenced the generation of intellectuals behind Greek independence, alongside Rigas Feraios's revolutionary poetry — twin pillars of Greek national awakening.
9 月 3 日三名希臘商人在俄國 Odessa 成立「友誼社」(Filiki Eteria)，秘密策劃反鄂圖曼起義。短短 7 年吸收逾萬會員、籌資購械、聯絡俄國與西歐菲力希臘派(Philhellenes)。1821 年 3 月起義由此組織發動。
On September 3, three Greek merchants founded the 'Friendly Society' (Filiki Eteria) in Odessa, Russia, secretly plotting anti-Ottoman insurrection. In just seven years it recruited over 10,000 members, raised funds for weapons, and networked with Russian and European Philhellenes. The March 1821 uprising was its handiwork.
3 月 25 日 Patras 主教 Germanos 升希臘十字旗，全希臘反鄂圖曼統治 370 年起義。1825 年 Ibrahim Pasha 埃及軍幫鄂圖曼鎮壓幾成，英法俄三國 1827 年介入 Navarino 海戰扭轉戰局。
On March 25, Bishop Germanos of Patras raised the Greek cross flag, launching the revolt against 370 years of Ottoman rule. Egyptian Ibrahim Pasha's forces nearly crushed them by 1825, until Britain, France, and Russia intervened at the Battle of Navarino (1827), turning the tide.
10 月 20 日英法俄聯合艦隊在 Navarino 灣擊沉鄂圖曼-埃及艦隊 60 餘艘，是風帆時代最後大海戰。歐洲三強介入決定希臘獨立命運，1832 年 Istanbul 條約承認希臘獨立。
On October 20, the combined British, French, and Russian fleet sank over 60 Ottoman-Egyptian ships in Navarino Bay — the last major naval battle of the Age of Sail. The three powers' intervention decided Greek independence; the 1832 Treaty of Constantinople recognized it.
5 月倫敦協議設希臘為君主立憲王國，巴伐利亞 Wittelsbach 家 17 歲 Otto 為首任國王。雅典 1834 年成首都。王政持續 90 年，1862 Otto 被推翻、1864 希臘統一七島(Ionian)、1913 併 Macedonia。
In May, the London Conference established Greece as a constitutional monarchy. Bavarian Wittelsbach's 17-year-old Otto became first king; Athens became capital in 1834. The monarchy lasted 90 years — Otto overthrown in 1862, Ionian Islands united in 1864, Macedonia annexed in 1913.
8 月克里特希臘人起義反鄂圖曼，雖 1869 年被鎮壓，但引歐美 Philhellene 運動再起。Arkadi 修道院守軍與難民 943 人寧自爆炸藥庫玉石俱焚亦不投降，震撼歐洲。克里特最終 1913 年併入希臘。
In August, Cretan Greeks revolted against the Ottomans. Though suppressed by 1869, it revived European and American Philhellene sympathies. At Arkadi Monastery, 943 defenders and refugees blew up the powder magazine rather than surrender — shocking Europe. Crete was finally united with Greece in 1913.
10 月希臘與塞爾維亞、保加利亞、蒙特內哥羅聯合對鄂圖曼，奪 Thessaloniki、Epirus、Crete、Aegean 島嶼。1913 第二次巴爾幹戰爭希塞對保，保加利亞慘敗。希臘領土、人口雙倍成長，為一戰埋下火藥。
In October, Greece joined Serbia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro against the Ottomans, seizing Thessaloniki, Epirus, Crete, and Aegean islands. The 1913 Second Balkan War saw Greece and Serbia defeat Bulgaria. Greek territory and population doubled — sowing seeds for WWI.
6 月希臘在維尼澤洛斯主導下對同盟國宣戰，加入巴爾幹戰線，1918 年馬其頓戰線助擊敗保加利亞。
In June, under Venizelos, Greece declared war on the Central Powers and joined the Balkan Front. In 1918, Greek forces helped defeat Bulgaria on the Macedonian Front.
1919-22 希臘入侵小亞細亞欲實現「偉大理想」恢復拜占庭疆界。9 月 9 日 Atatürk 凱末爾軍反攻攻克 Smyrna，希臘與亞美尼亞區大火。150 萬 Anatolian 希臘人+50 萬土耳其穆斯林 1923 年 Lausanne 條約人口大交換。現代希臘身分認同關鍵創傷。
From 1919-22, Greece invaded Asia Minor seeking the 'Great Idea' of restoring Byzantine borders. On September 9, Atatürk's forces recaptured Smyrna; the Greek and Armenian quarters burned. The 1923 Treaty of Lausanne exchanged 1.5 million Anatolian Greeks and 500,000 Turkish Muslims — a defining trauma of modern Greek identity.
10 月 28 日凌晨 3 時義大利駐雅典大使向 Metaxas 總理遞最後通牒要求軍事過境，Metaxas 以一字拒絕：「Ochi」(不)。義大利當日入侵，希軍反擊把義軍趕回阿爾巴尼亞。希特勒 1941.4 出手才壓服希臘。10/28 至今為希臘國定假日。
At 3 AM on October 28, Italy's ambassador in Athens delivered an ultimatum to PM Metaxas demanding military passage. Metaxas refused with one word: 'Ochi' (No). Italy invaded that day; Greek troops pushed them back into Albania. Hitler had to intervene in April 1941 to subdue Greece. October 28 remains a Greek national holiday.
4 月德軍征服希臘，德義保三國瓜分佔領。納粹徵糧致 1941-42 冬雅典大饑荒餓死 30 萬人。希臘抵抗運動(EAM/ELAS 與 EDES)浴血反抗，全國 4% 人口死於二戰(相對比率歐洲第三慘)。
In April, German forces conquered Greece; Germany, Italy, and Bulgaria partitioned it. Nazi requisitions caused the 1941-42 Athens famine, starving 300,000. Greek resistance (communist EAM/ELAS and republican EDES) fought fiercely; 4% of the population died in WW2 — Europe's third-highest relative loss.
1946-49 共產 ELAS 遊擊隊對抗英美支持的皇家政府。1947 年 3 月杜魯門主義(Truman Doctrine)因此發表，美國取代英國領導西方圍堵共產。-1949 狄托(南斯拉夫)關邊界使游擊隊補給斷，政府軍勝。是冷戰首場熱戰，10 萬人死亡。
From 1946-49, the communist ELAS guerrillas fought the British-American-backed royal government. The March 1947 Truman Doctrine was announced over Greece, as America replaced Britain leading Western containment of communism. Yugoslavia's Tito closed his borders in 1949, cutting guerrilla supplies; the government won. 100,000 died in the Cold War's first hot war.
4 月 21 日凌晨 Papadopoulos 等上校以坦克政變奪權，國王 Constantine II 流亡。軍政府禁政黨、審查新聞、拷問異議者 7 年。1973 雅典理工學院學生抗議被血腥鎮壓，1974 Cyprus 政變引土耳其入侵，軍政府跨台。
At dawn on April 21, Papadopoulos and colleagues seized power with tanks; King Constantine II fled. The junta banned parties, censored press, and tortured dissidents for 7 years. The 1973 Athens Polytechnic student revolt was crushed; the 1974 Cyprus coup provoked Turkish invasion, toppling the junta.
7 月 Karamanlis 從巴黎返國組民選政府，結束 7 年軍政府。12 月公投 69% 廢君主制，第三共和成立。1981 Papandreou 首任 PASOK 社會主義政府，開啟希臘現代民主兩黨制。
In July, Karamanlis returned from Paris to form an elected government, ending 7 years of junta. The December referendum abolished the monarchy 69-31; the Third Hellenic Republic was established. In 1981 Papandreou formed the first PASOK socialist government, opening modern Greek two-party democracy.
1 月 1 日希臘成歐洲共同體第 10 國(僅次 1973 英愛丹之後)。民主鞏固關鍵，與軍政府時代歐美保持距離的羞辱做切割。1992 Maastricht、2001 採歐元，希臘深度整合入歐。但結構改革落後埋下 2010 危機遠因。
On January 1, Greece became the EEC's 10th member (after UK, Ireland, Denmark in 1973). A key moment of democratic consolidation, breaking from the junta-era distance from Europe/America. Greece joined Maastricht in 1992 and adopted the euro in 2001 — deep integration. But lagging structural reform seeded the 2010 crisis.
4 月 Papandreou 政府承認赤字遠超申報，希臘債券殖利率飆破 10%。5 月 IMF/歐盟/ECB「三駕馬車」1100 億歐元緊急紓困，附帶極嚴緊縮。GDP 縮 25%、失業 28%、年輕失業 60%。歐元區存續危機。
In April, PM Papandreou admitted Greek deficits far exceeded declared figures; bond yields surged past 10%. In May the IMF/EU/ECB 'Troika' provided €110 billion emergency bailout with brutal austerity conditions. GDP contracted 25%, unemployment hit 28% (youth 60%). A eurozone existential crisis.
7 月 5 日 Syriza 的 Tsipras 舉辦紓困公投，61% 投 Oxi(「不」接受緊縮方案)，呼應 1940 Metaxas。但財長 Varoufakis 辭職、銀行關閉引資本管制、Tsipras 違公投民意簽第 3 紓困。希臘民主對抗歐洲官僚菁英之典型，但最終妥協。
On July 5, Syriza's Tsipras held a bailout referendum; 61% voted Oxi ('No' to austerity), echoing 1940 Metaxas. But Finance Minister Varoufakis resigned, banks closed forcing capital controls, and Tsipras defied the referendum to sign a third bailout. A classic case of democracy against European technocratic elites — ending in compromise.