哥倫布登陸到特朗普就職，美洲經歷了五個世紀的征服、革命與帝國擴張。每一次劇變都重塑了這片大陸，從阿茲特克帝國的灰燼到現代超級大國的誕生。
Columbus to Trump: five centuries of conquest, revolution, and empire. The Americas rose from indigenous collapse to global dominance, remaking itself with each upheaval.
在互動時間軸上瀏覽 → Open in interactive timeline →
Pedro Álvares Cabral 4/22 偶然發現巴西海岸（其實是去印度）。葡萄牙根據 Tordesillas 條約宣告主權，建立美洲唯一葡語殖民地。Belém 為早期殖民據點。
Pedro Álvares Cabral accidentally found Brazilian coast April 22 (en route to India). Portugal claimed under Treaty of Tordesillas, founding only Portuguese-speaking American colony. Belém early settlement.
Hernán Cortés 600 兵 + Tlaxcala 盟友 + 天花疫病擊潰 Aztec 帝國 30 萬人。Cuauhtémoc 末代皇帝被俘殺。Tenochtitlan 陷落，西班牙建 Mexico City，殖民 300 年。
Hernán Cortés's 600 troops + Tlaxcala allies + smallpox crushed Aztec Empire's 300k. Last emperor Cuauhtémoc captured and killed. Tenochtitlan fell; Spanish founded Mexico City, colonized 300 years.
北美十三殖民地宣布脫離英國統治，建立美利堅合眾國，是現代民主政治的重要里程碑。
The thirteen North American colonies declare independence from Britain, establishing the United States — a landmark of modern democracy.
美國憲法正式生效，建立三權分立的聯邦制政府，成為現代憲政民主的典範。
The US Constitution takes effect, establishing a federal government with separation of powers — a model for modern constitutional democracy.
Toussaint Louverture 領奴隸大起義 8/22 反法殖民。13 年戰爭擊敗 Napoleon (損 5 萬法軍)。Dessalines 1/1/1804 宣告獨立。史上唯一成功奴隸革命，廢奴與獨立同時達成。
Toussaint Louverture led slave uprising Aug 22 against French. 13-year war defeated Napoleon (50k French dead). Dessalines declared independence Jan 1, 1804. Only successful slave revolution; abolition and independence simultaneously.
12 月 15 日 Madison 起草的 Bill of Rights 由州批准生效。10 條修正案保障言論、宗教、新聞、集會、武器、正當法律程序、陪審團、不受過度懲罰等個人權利。至今仍是美國政治文化、法律爭議的核心(如第 2 修正案擁槍權)。
On December 15, Madison's Bill of Rights was ratified. Ten amendments guaranteed individual rights: speech, religion, press, assembly, arms, due process, jury trial, freedom from excessive punishment. Still the core of American political culture and legal battles today (e.g., Second Amendment gun rights).
美國從法國購買路易斯安那領地，國土面積倍增
US purchases Louisiana Territory from France, doubling the nation's size.
從 1803 Louisiana Purchase 到 1861 內戰，58 年西進 + 奴隸制撕裂：Lewis & Clark 1804、1812 戰爭、Monroe 主義、Trail of Tears 1830、Texas 1845、美墨戰爭 1846、California Gold Rush 1849、Kansas-Nebraska 1854、Dred Scott 1857、Lincoln 1860。國土從 Mississippi 擴至 Pacific。
From the 1803 Louisiana Purchase to 1861 Civil War, 58 years of westward expansion and slavery tearing the nation: Lewis & Clark 1804, War of 1812, Monroe Doctrine, Trail of Tears 1830, Texas 1845, Mexican-American War 1846, California Gold Rush 1849, Kansas-Nebraska 1854, Dred Scott 1857, Lincoln 1860. The nation expanded from Mississippi to Pacific.
1804/1/1 Dessalines 宣告海地獨立，拉美首個奴隸起義建立的共和國；震撼大西洋奴隸制世界。
On Jan 1, 1804, Dessalines declared Haiti independent—the first republic founded by a slave revolt, shocking the Atlantic slave system.
美洲第二獨立國（僅次美國），世界首個黑人共和國。法強迫 1825 賠償 1.5 億法郎「奴隸主損失」，海地 122 年還債（直至 1947），永久窮困根源之一。
Second independent nation in Americas (after US); world's first Black republic. France forced 150M franc 'slave owner compensation' in 1825; Haiti paid for 122 years (until 1947), one root of permanent poverty.
神父 Miguel Hidalgo 9/16 在 Dolores 教堂喊「Grito de Dolores」(獨立呼聲)。11 年戰爭 Iturbide 1821 完成獨立。9/16 為墨西哥國慶日（非美墨戰爭結束的 9/14）。
Father Miguel Hidalgo's Sept 16 'Grito de Dolores' at Dolores church called for independence. 11-year war ended with Iturbide's 1821 independence. Sept 16 is Mexico's national day.
6 月 18 日美對英宣戰，因英國拿破崙戰爭海上封鎖損美貿易、強徵美水手入英艦。1814 英軍火燒 Washington 包括白宮。但 1814 Ghent 條約回歸戰前狀態。Jackson 1815 在 New Orleans 擊敗英軍(不知已停戰)。戰爭鞏固美國國族認同。
On June 18, the US declared war on Britain over Napoleonic-era naval blockades hurting American trade and impressment of US sailors. In 1814 British troops burned Washington including the White House. The 1814 Treaty of Ghent restored status quo ante. Jackson's 1815 New Orleans victory (after the war had already ended) rallied national identity.
San Martín 與 Belgrano 領南美獨立戰爭。7/9 Tucumán 國會宣告 Río de la Plata 聯合省獨立。後分裂為 Argentina、Uruguay、Paraguay、Bolivia 四國。
San Martín and Belgrano led South American independence war. July 9 Tucumán Congress declared United Provinces of Río de la Plata independence. Later split into Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia.
San Martín 與 O'Higgins 領 Andes 山遠征軍 2/12 Maipú 戰役大敗西班牙軍，正式獨立。O'Higgins 為首任最高領袖，建立共和制。
San Martín and O'Higgins led Andean expedition; Feb 12 Battle of Maipú decisively defeated Spanish, formal independence. O'Higgins first Supreme Director, established republic.
佩德羅一世宣布巴西脫離葡萄牙獨立
Pedro I declares Brazil's independence from Portugal.
12 月 2 日 Monroe 總統國情咨文宣告：歐洲不得再殖民西半球，美洲事務歐洲別插手，美國不干預歐洲事務。雖無實力執行(19C 仍靠英國海軍)，但 19C 末起成美國外交根本原則，1904 Roosevelt 推論擴張為積極干預拉美。
On December 2, President Monroe's State of the Union declared: Europe cannot colonize the Western Hemisphere further, Europe stay out of American affairs, America won't interfere in Europe. Lacking enforcement power (relied on the British navy through the 19th century), it became the foundational US foreign policy principle from the late 19th century. The 1904 Roosevelt Corollary extended it to active Latin American intervention.
5 月 28 日 Jackson 簽 Indian Removal Act，強制五大族(Cherokee、Creek、Choctaw、Chickasaw、Seminole)從東南部遷至 Oklahoma「印第安領地」。1838-39 Cherokee「血淚之路」死 4 千人。是美國早期大規模種族清洗，至今民族記憶傷痛。
On May 28, Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act, forcibly relocating the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole) from the Southeast to Oklahoma 'Indian Territory.' The 1838-39 Cherokee 'Trail of Tears' killed 4,000 people. An early US mass ethnic cleansing, a lasting national wound.
4 月 25 日爆發。1848 年 Guadalupe Hidalgo 條約墨國割讓加州、新墨、亞利桑那、科羅拉多、猶他、內華達、懷俄明(計 135 萬平方公里)，美付 1500 萬美元。國土擴 1/3。但新領土是否允奴隸制引燃南北分裂，為 Civil War 埋下遠因。
Broke out on April 25. The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ceded California, New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, and Wyoming (1.35 million km²) to the US for $15 million. National territory expanded by a third. But whether slavery would be allowed in the new territories ignited the North-South split, seeding the Civil War.
1 月 James Marshall 於 Sutter's Mill 發現金，消息 1849 年傳開，30 萬「49 人」湧入加州(世界各地，包括中國人稱「金山」)。加州 1850 年成州。3 年金礦產值 20 億美元。移民浪潮奠定西部開發基礎，但原住民被驅殺、華工遭歧視。
On January 24 James Marshall discovered gold at Sutter's Mill; news spread in 1849. 300,000 '49ers' flooded California from around the world (Chinese called it 'Gold Mountain'). California became a state in 1850. Three years of gold output totaled $2 billion. The migration laid the foundation for Western development — but indigenous peoples were driven out and killed, and Chinese laborers faced discrimination.
美國南北方為奴隸制存廢爆發內戰，北方聯邦獲勝，奴隸制廢除，美國維持統一並走向工業化。
War between Union and Confederacy over slavery; Union victory abolishes slavery and preserves national unity, accelerating industrialization.
從內戰結束到美西戰爭，33 年間美國成工業強國：橫貫鐵路(1869)、Rockefeller 標準石油、Carnegie 鋼鐵、Vanderbilt 鐵路、Morgan 金融。移民 3 千萬湧入 Ellis Island(1892 起)、勞工血汗、Homestead 罷工 1892、Pullman 罷工 1894、Sherman Antitrust 1890。Mark Twain《鍍金時代》命名此期。
From Civil War's end to the Spanish-American War, 33 years saw America become an industrial power: Transcontinental Railroad (1869), Rockefeller's Standard Oil, Carnegie Steel, Vanderbilt railroads, Morgan finance. 30 million immigrants poured through Ellis Island (from 1892); labor exploitation, 1892 Homestead Strike, 1894 Pullman Strike, 1890 Sherman Antitrust Act. Mark Twain's 'Gilded Age' named this era.
British North America Act 7/1 將 Ontario、Quebec、New Brunswick、Nova Scotia 4 殖民地聯合為 Dominion of Canada，自治領，仍歸英王。後續加 6 省。
British North America Act July 1 united Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia into Dominion of Canada — self-governing, but under British Crown. Later expanded to 10 provinces.
3 月 Rutherford Hayes 當選總統交換條件：南方承認其勝選，聯邦撤軍南部終結 Reconstruction。南方白人重掌權，Jim Crow 種族隔離制、剝奪黑人投票權、私刑暴力興起。黑人從「奴隸」變「二等公民」近 100 年。民權運動 1950s 起才逆轉。
In March, Rutherford Hayes's presidency was secured via a compromise: the South accepted his win, and federal troops withdrew — ending Reconstruction. Southern whites regained power; Jim Crow segregation, Black disenfranchisement, and lynching rose. Blacks went from 'slaves' to 'second-class citizens' for nearly a century. Only the 1950s Civil Rights Movement reversed it.
Princess Isabel 5/13 簽「Lei Áurea」(Golden Law) 廢除奴隸制，無補償。美洲最後廢奴的國家（殖民史 350 年累積 480 萬非洲奴隸）。1 年後君主制被推翻。
Princess Isabel signed 'Lei Áurea' (Golden Law) May 13 abolishing slavery without compensation. Last in Americas (350 colonial years brought 4.8M African slaves). Monarchy toppled 1 year later.
美洲最後廢除奴隸制的國家
Last country in the Americas to abolish slavery.
軍事政變推翻帝制，建立共和國
Military coup overthrows the monarchy, establishing a republic.
1 月 1 日 Ellis Island 移民檢疫站在 New York 港啟用。1892-1954 年共 1200 萬移民通過，主要來自義、愛、猶太、波蘭、俄羅斯、希臘。今日 40% 美國人有祖先通過此站。與 Statue of Liberty(1886)並列美國多元民族象徵。1924 移民配額法大幅收緊。
On January 1, Ellis Island immigrant inspection station opened in New York Harbor. From 1892 to 1954, 12 million immigrants passed through — mostly Italian, Irish, Jewish, Polish, Russian, Greek. 40% of Americans today have ancestors who came through. With the Statue of Liberty (1886), it became the symbol of American multi-ethnic identity. The 1924 Immigration Act drastically tightened quotas.
4 月 21 日美對西班牙宣戰，藉口 USS Maine 在 Havana 爆炸。10 週勝利。12 月 Paris 條約美獲古巴(1902 獨立)、波多黎各、關島、菲律賓(買 2000 萬美元)。美國從大陸強國轉為跨太平洋帝國。Theodore Roosevelt 因 Rough Riders 成英雄、1901 年任總統。
On April 21, the US declared war on Spain over the USS Maine explosion in Havana. Victory came in 10 weeks. The December Treaty of Paris gave the US Cuba (independent 1902), Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines (bought for $20 million). America transformed from continental power to trans-Pacific empire. Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders made him a hero; he became president in 1901.
Madero 推翻 Diaz 30 年獨裁，10 年內 Villa (北)、Zapata (南)、Carranza、Obregón 派系混戰，~100 萬死。1917 憲法為現代墨西哥奠基（土地改革、勞工權）。
Madero ousted Diaz's 30-year dictatorship; 10-year war among Villa (north), Zapata (south), Carranza, Obregón factions; ~1M dead. 1917 Constitution laid modern Mexico foundation (land reform, labor rights).
8 月 18 日 Tennessee 州第 36 個批准 19th Amendment，女性獲全國投票權。1848 Seneca Falls 起 72 年運動。Susan B. Anthony、Elizabeth Cady Stanton、Alice Paul 先後領導。比英國(1918 部分)晚、比德國(1919)晚，但比法(1944)早。黑人婦女至 1965 投票權法才實質擁有。
On August 18, Tennessee became the 36th state to ratify the 19th Amendment — women gained nationwide suffrage. A 72-year movement since 1848 Seneca Falls. Led by Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Alice Paul. Later than the UK (1918 partial) and Germany (1919), earlier than France (1944). Black women only gained effective voting rights with the 1965 Voting Rights Act.
3 月 4 日 Franklin Roosevelt 就職，百日內推動 15 項大法案：銀行改革、工作救濟、農業補貼、基建、社會安全、勞工保障。AAA、NRA、TVA、SEC、CCC、WPA。政府角色大幅擴張，現代美國自由派(liberal)政治傳統奠基，影響 40 年直到雷根。
On March 4, Franklin Roosevelt took office and pushed 15 major laws in 100 days: banking reform, work relief, agricultural subsidies, infrastructure, social security, labor protection. AAA, NRA, TVA, SEC, CCC, WPA. The government role expanded dramatically — founding the modern American liberal tradition that shaped 40 years until Reagan.
12 月 15 日 Gone with the Wind 首映，同年 Wizard of Oz、Stagecoach、Wuthering Heights 上映。1930s-40s Hollywood studio 制度黃金期：MGM/Warner/Paramount 等 8 大製片廠主宰全球影視。明星制度(Gable/Garbo/Bogart)、彩色片、音樂劇、西部片、Film Noir 為美國軟實力奠基。
On December 15, Gone with the Wind premiered; the same year saw The Wizard of Oz, Stagecoach, and Wuthering Heights. The 1930s-40s Hollywood studio system's golden age: the Big 8 (MGM, Warner, Paramount, etc.) dominated global cinema. The star system (Gable, Garbo, Bogart), color, musicals, Westerns, and film noir laid the foundation of American soft power.
日本偷襲珍珠港，美國正式參加二戰
Japan attacks Pearl Harbor; the US enters World War II.
8 月 6 日 B-29「Enola Gay」投下 Little Boy(廣島，約 14 萬死)，8 月 9 日投下 Fat Man(長崎，約 7 萬死)。8 月 15 日日本投降 WW2 終。是史上僅有兩次核武實戰。開啟原子時代、冷戰核恐怖平衡；至今倫理爭議未止。
On August 6, B-29 'Enola Gay' dropped Little Boy on Hiroshima (~140,000 dead); on August 9, Fat Man hit Nagasaki (~70,000 dead). Japan surrendered on August 15, ending WW2. History's only wartime use of nuclear weapons. The atomic age began; the Cold War nuclear terror balance followed. Ethical debates continue.
Juan Perón 6 月當選總統，妻 Eva Perón (Evita) 為民眾偶像。推 Justicialismo (正義主義)：勞工權、女性投票權、國有化。Eva 1952 早死神化。
Juan Perón elected June; wife Eva Perón (Evita) became people's icon. Pushed Justicialismo: labor rights, women's vote, nationalization. Eva's early 1952 death sanctified.
杜魯門主義標誌美蘇冷戰正式開始
Truman Doctrine marks the formal beginning of the US-Soviet Cold War.
從 1947 Truman 主義到 1991 蘇聯解體，44 年美蘇意識形態對峙。韓戰、越戰、古巴飛彈、冷戰隔離(鐵幕)、Marshall Plan、NATO、太空競賽(Sputnik 1957→Apollo 1969)、星戰計畫、Reagan-Gorbachev 會談。核武恐怖平衡與代理戰爭橫掃全球。
From 1947 Truman Doctrine to 1991 Soviet collapse, 44 years of US-Soviet ideological standoff. Korean War, Vietnam War, Cuban Missile Crisis, Iron Curtain, Marshall Plan, NATO, Space Race (Sputnik 1957 → Apollo 1969), Star Wars SDI, Reagan-Gorbachev summits. Nuclear terror balance and proxy wars swept the globe.
4 月 3 日 Truman 簽 European Recovery Program，向 16 個西歐國家提供 130 億美元援助 4 年。目的：穩定歐洲經濟、防共產蔓延、擴大美國出口市場。戰後西歐 GDP 恢復超戰前、美蘇冷戰分界鞏固、歐盟前身 OEEC 成立。外交史上最成功的「軟實力」計畫之一。
On April 3, Truman signed the European Recovery Program, providing $13 billion in aid to 16 Western European nations over 4 years. Goals: stabilize European economies, prevent communist spread, expand US export markets. Post-war Western European GDP surpassed pre-war levels; the Cold War divide solidified; the OEEC (EU precursor) was founded. One of the most successful 'soft power' campaigns in diplomatic history.
2 月 9 日 Wisconsin 參議員 McCarthy 演講宣稱手持 205 個國務院共產黨員名單。引爆 4 年「紅色恐慌」：政府、好萊塢、大學大規模整肅被指共產同情者。HUAC 黑名單毀數千人職涯。1954 年 McCarthy 被參議院譴責失勢，但冷戰意識形態、反共心態深植美國文化 40 年。
On February 9, Wisconsin Senator McCarthy claimed to hold a list of 205 State Department communists. Four years of 'Red Scare' followed: mass purges in government, Hollywood, and universities of accused communist sympathizers. The HUAC blacklist destroyed thousands of careers. The Senate censured McCarthy in 1954, ending his influence — but Cold War ideology and anti-communist mentality shaped American culture for 40 years.
從 1954 Brown v Board(學校分離違憲)到 1968 MLK 遇刺 + 民權法案 II，14 年間非裔美人以非暴力抗爭、法律訴訟、媒體動員爭取公民權。Rosa Parks 1955、Little Rock Nine 1957、MLK 1963 I Have a Dream、1964 民權法案、1965 投票權法、Malcolm X、Selma 大遊行。
From 1954 Brown v Board (school segregation unconstitutional) to 1968 MLK assassination plus Civil Rights Act II, 14 years of African-American nonviolent protest, litigation, and media mobilization for civil rights. Rosa Parks 1955, Little Rock Nine 1957, MLK 1963 'I Have a Dream,' 1964 Civil Rights Act, 1965 Voting Rights Act, Malcolm X, Selma marches.
5 月 17 日最高法院 9-0 判定公立學校種族隔離違反憲法第 14 修正案「平等保護」。推翻 1896 Plessy v Ferguson「分離但平等」原則。南方白人「massive resistance」拒執行。1957 Little Rock Nine、1960s 強制校車融合。現代美國民權運動法律奠基。
On May 17, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled public school racial segregation violated the 14th Amendment's equal protection. Overturned the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson 'separate but equal.' Southern whites responded with 'massive resistance.' The 1957 Little Rock Nine and 1960s forced busing followed. The legal foundation of the modern Civil Rights Movement.
3 月 Elvis Presley 發行首張專輯首周售破百萬、同年 6 月 Ed Sullivan Show 上鏡。21 歲 Elvis 融合非裔藍調 + 白人鄉村成 Rock and Roll，震撼保守社會、青少年文化誕生。與 Chuck Berry、Little Richard 並開啟流行音樂革命。1950s-60s 美國文化影響全世界。
In March, Elvis Presley's debut album sold 1 million in its first week; in June, he appeared on Ed Sullivan Show. The 21-year-old Elvis fused Black blues with white country into Rock and Roll — shocking conservative society and birthing teen culture. With Chuck Berry and Little Richard, he launched the pop music revolution. 1950s-60s American culture shaped the world.
「Papa Doc」François Duvalier 醫生 9/22 當選後建恐怖獨裁，以 Tonton Macoute 民兵殺異己。1971 死後子「Baby Doc」Jean-Claude 接班 15 年。29 年家族統治、~3 萬人死。
'Papa Doc' François Duvalier physician elected Sept 22, founded terror dictatorship using Tonton Macoute militia. Son 'Baby Doc' Jean-Claude succeeded 15 years after 1971. 29-year family rule, ~30k dead.
1959/1/1 Batista 逃離，Castro 革命軍進哈瓦那；西半球首個共產政權，美洲冷戰前線。
On Jan 1, 1959, Batista fled and Castro's forces entered Havana—the Western Hemisphere's first communist state, a Cold War flashpoint.
Fidel Castro、Che Guevara 領 26th of July Movement 1/1 攻入 Havana 推翻 Batista。土地改革、國有化美企，與美決裂、轉向蘇聯，建拉丁美洲首個共產國家。
Fidel Castro, Che Guevara's 26th of July Movement took Havana Jan 1, ousting Batista. Land reform, nationalized US firms, broke with US, turned to USSR; founded Latin America's first communist state.
首都從里約遷至全新建設的巴西利亞
Capital moves from Rio de Janeiro to the newly built Brasília.
CIA 訓練 Cuba 流亡者 4/17 登陸豬玀灣企圖推翻 Castro。Castro 4 日內擊潰 1500 人、俘 1200。Kennedy 慘敗使 Castro 公開宣稱社會主義、加深美蘇對峙。
CIA-trained Cuban exiles landed Bay of Pigs April 17 to overthrow Castro. Castro crushed 1,500 in 4 days, captured 1,200. Kennedy's debacle led Castro to publicly declare socialism, deepening US-Soviet confrontation.
8 月 28 日「Washington 大遊行」25 萬人集結 Lincoln 紀念堂，MLK 發表「I Have a Dream」17 分鐘即興演講。推動次年 Civil Rights Act 1964、1965 Voting Rights Act 通過。是 20 世紀最偉大演講之一、民權運動巔峰時刻。
On August 28, 250,000 gathered at the Lincoln Memorial for the March on Washington; MLK delivered the 17-minute improvised 'I Have a Dream' speech. It helped pass the 1964 Civil Rights Act and 1965 Voting Rights Act. One of the 20th century's greatest speeches, the peak of the Civil Rights Movement.
美國通過民權法案，禁止種族歧視
US passes the Civil Rights Act, outlawing racial discrimination.
Pierre Trudeau (魁北克裔知識分子) 4 月當選總理，引發「Trudeaumania」。推 Official Languages Act (英法雙語)、多元文化主義、Charter of Rights、加拿大化憲法。
Pierre Trudeau (Quebec intellectual) won April; sparked 'Trudeaumania.' Pushed Official Languages Act (English/French bilingualism), multiculturalism, Charter of Rights, repatriated constitution.
4 月 4 日 MLK 在 Memphis 被刺殺。6 月 5 日 RFK 在 LA 勝加州初選後被刺。加上 Tet 攻勢、Chicago 民主黨大會鎮壓、Columbia 學運，1968 是美國二戰後最動盪的一年。尼克森「沉默多數」策略勝選，60 年代理想主義黃金期落幕。
On April 4, MLK was assassinated in Memphis. On June 5, RFK was shot in LA after winning the California primary. With the Tet Offensive, Chicago DNC police riots, and Columbia student protests, 1968 was the most turbulent year in post-WW2 America. Nixon's 'silent majority' strategy won; the 60s idealistic golden age ended.
10 月 29 日 UCLA 與 Stanford 間首次封包傳輸「LO」(原欲打「LOGIN」系統當機)。ARPA(國防部)資助、Bolt Beranek Newman 建，4 節點擴至 1973 23 節點。TCP/IP(1983)、DNS(1985)、WWW(1991) 演化至今日網際網路，美國科技影響全球日常生活。
On October 29, the first packet transmission between UCLA and Stanford sent 'LO' (the system crashed trying to send 'LOGIN'). ARPA (Defense Department) funded, Bolt Beranek Newman built — 4 nodes expanded to 23 by 1973. TCP/IP (1983), DNS (1985), WWW (1991) evolved into today's Internet — American tech shaping global daily life.
Salvador Allende 9/4 大選險勝，11/3 就任，世界首位民主選出的馬克思主義總統。國有化銅礦、土改、推醫療教育。美 Nixon「讓經濟尖叫」杯葛使智利惡化。
Salvador Allende narrowly won Sept 4 election; took office Nov 3 — world's first democratically elected Marxist president. Nationalized copper, land reform, expanded healthcare-education. Nixon's 'make economy scream' policy worsened Chile.
Augusto Pinochet 9/11 政變轟炸 La Moneda 總統府。Allende 自殺 (官方)。CIA 背書政變後 17 年獨裁：~3000 死/失蹤、3 萬被酷刑、20 萬流亡。
Augusto Pinochet's Sept 11 coup bombed La Moneda presidential palace. Allende suicided (official). CIA-backed coup led to 17-year dictatorship: ~3,000 killed/disappeared, 30k tortured, 200k exiled.
8 月 8 日 Nixon 面對彈劾辭職，是美史上首位辭職總統。1972 6 月 Watergate 複合體民主黨總部被竊聽案 2 年查證涉及白宮掩蓋。Washington Post「Deep Throat」爆料、特別檢察官、國會聽證。Ford 任總統，赦免 Nixon。美國總統權力與新聞自由戰役標誌性案例。
On August 8, facing impeachment, Nixon resigned — the first US president to do so. Two years of investigation after the June 1972 Watergate Democratic HQ break-in uncovered White House cover-up. Washington Post's 'Deep Throat' leaks, special prosecutor, congressional hearings. Ford became president and pardoned Nixon. A landmark battle between presidential power and press freedom.
軍政府 3/24 政變推翻 Isabel Perón。展開「Dirty War」對左翼、學生、工會：~3 萬人「失蹤」(desaparecidos)，包括投海處決、嬰兒被搶。1985 軍方領袖受審。
Military junta overthrew Isabel Perón March 24. Launched 'Dirty War' against leftists, students, unions: ~30k 'disappeared,' including death flights and stolen babies. 1985 military leaders tried.
4 月 1 日 Jobs、Wozniak、Wayne 在 Jobs 家車庫成立 Apple Computer。Apple I 家用電腦售 666 美元、1977 Apple II 量產成功。同期 Microsoft 1975 成立、Intel 1968、HP、Fairchild。Silicon Valley 從軍工 → 半導體 → PC → 網路 → 行動 → AI 主導全球科技 50 年。
On April 1, Jobs, Wozniak, and Wayne founded Apple Computer in Jobs's family garage. Apple I home computer sold for $666; 1977 Apple II went mass-market. Microsoft was founded 1975, Intel 1968, HP and Fairchild earlier. Silicon Valley went from military-industrial to semiconductors to PCs to internet to mobile to AI — dominating global tech for 50 years.
11 月 4 日 Reagan 以 489 選舉人票壓倒 Carter 49 張當選。減稅、減政府(「政府不是解決方案，政府是問題」)、擴軍備、反共積極對抗蘇聯、支持 mujahideen。1983 Star Wars SDI 計畫、1987 Berlin 牆演講。與 Thatcher 聯手贏冷戰。美國從 New Deal 自由派轉向自由市場保守派時代。
On November 4, Reagan won 489-49 electoral votes over Carter. Tax cuts, smaller government ('government is not the solution, government is the problem'), defense buildup, aggressive anti-communism, supporting mujahideen. 1983 Star Wars SDI, 1987 Berlin Wall speech. With Thatcher he won the Cold War. America shifted from New Deal liberalism to free-market conservatism.
軍政府 4/2 入侵英屬 Falkland 群島轉移國內經濟危機。Thatcher 派艦隊 74 日奪回，阿軍 649 死、英 255 死。慘敗使軍政府 1983 倒台、民主回歸。
Junta invaded British Falkland Islands April 2 to deflect economic crisis. Thatcher's 74-day campaign retook them; 649 Argentine and 255 British dead. Defeat toppled junta 1983, democracy returned.
軍政府結束，恢復民主政治
Military dictatorship ends; democracy restored.
Pinochet 公投問是否留任至 1997。「Sí/No」廣告戰智利全國熱議，10/5 No 勝 56% vs 44%。Pinochet 被迫 1990 交權，民主回歸。
Pinochet held referendum on extending rule to 1997. 'Sí/No' ad war engaged nation; Oct 5 No won 56% vs 44%. Pinochet forced to transfer power 1990; democracy returned.
1 月 17 日美領 34 國聯軍啟動「沙漠風暴」。42 天空襲 + 100 小時地面戰後解放科威特。伊軍 2-3.5 萬死、美軍僅 294。CNN 24 小時直播戰爭成新媒體時代標誌。蘇聯解體前夕冷戰結束，美國確立單極超強地位，為 2003 伊拉克戰爭埋下 12 年伏筆。
On January 17, the US-led 34-nation coalition launched Operation Desert Storm. 42 days of airstrikes plus 100 hours of ground war liberated Kuwait. 20,000-35,000 Iraqi dead vs. 294 American. CNN's 24-hour war coverage marked the new media era. On the eve of Soviet collapse and Cold War's end, America established its unipolar superpower status — setting up the 2003 Iraq War 12 years later.
與美加 1/1 啟動北美自由貿易協定。墨西哥工業化加速、外資湧入，但 Chiapas Zapatista 同日反 NAFTA 起義。30 年後重議改稱 USMCA。
NAFTA with US/Canada took effect Jan 1. Mexico's industrialization accelerated, foreign investment poured in — but Chiapas Zapatista uprising same day opposed NAFTA. Renegotiated as USMCA 30 years later.
魁北克第二次獨立公投 10/30 險勝留聯邦：50.6% No vs 49.4% Yes。差距僅 5 萬票。聯邦主動推 Clarity Act 規範未來公投。Bloc Québécois 至今活躍。
Quebec's second independence referendum Oct 30 narrowly went No: 50.6% No vs 49.4% Yes — margin of 50k votes. Federal government later passed Clarity Act regulating future votes. Bloc Québécois remains active.
鋼鐵工人出身的 Lula 領 Workers' Party 掌權。推 Bolsa Família 扶貧，2000 萬人脫貧。第三世界左翼浪潮 (Pink Tide) 領袖。2018 受賄入獄，2022 復出再當總統。
Steelworker-born Lula's Workers' Party took power. Bolsa Família anti-poverty program lifted 20M out of poverty. Pink Tide left-wing wave leader. 2018 jailed for corruption; 2022 returned as president.
3 月 20 日 Bush 以「大規模殺傷武器」(事後證實不存在)為由入侵伊拉克。3 週推翻 Saddam，但 8 年佔領陷入遜尼-什葉內戰 + 基地 + ISIS 興起。2011 撤軍。4800 美軍+10 萬伊拉克平民死亡。美國單邊主義達頂峰也受全球反彈，為中俄崛起提供窗口。
On March 20, Bush invaded Iraq on 'weapons of mass destruction' pretext (later proven false). Three weeks to topple Saddam, but 8 years of occupation descended into Sunni-Shia civil war, al-Qaeda, and ISIS rise. 2011 withdrawal. 4,800 US and 100,000+ Iraqi civilian deaths. American unilateralism peaked and drew global backlash, opening the window for Chinese-Russian rise.
6 月 29 日第一代 iPhone 上市。Jobs 1 月 Macworld「三合一裝置」發表演講是矽谷史上最著名產品發表。重塑手機、相機、音樂、app 經濟。2008 App Store 啟用催生全球 app 產業。Apple 2018 首破兆美元市值、2023 破 3 兆。智慧型手機普及改變全球 70 億人生活方式。
On June 29, the first iPhone launched. Jobs's January Macworld 'three-in-one device' keynote became Silicon Valley's most famous product launch. It reshaped phones, cameras, music, and the app economy. The 2008 App Store birthed the global app industry. Apple hit $1 trillion in 2018 and $3 trillion in 2023. Smartphones changed daily life for 7 billion people worldwide.
Fidel 因健康 2/19 將總統職交弟 Raúl，49 年實際統治結束。Raúl 後推有限改革（私營小企業合法化、部分美旅遊放寬）。Fidel 2016 死、Raúl 2021 退休。
Fidel transferred presidency to brother Raúl Feb 19 due to health, ending 49-year de facto rule. Raúl later pursued limited reforms (legalized small private business, partial US travel). Fidel died 2016; Raúl retired 2021.
9 月 15 日 Lehman Brothers 破產(158 年史最大企業破產)引爆全球金融危機。次貸危機蔓延至衍生性商品、AIG 被國有化、美聯儲救市、美股跌 50%。Obama 推 7870 億紓困 + Dodd-Frank 改革。全球進入零利率 + QE 時代 10 年，財富不均加劇、民粹崛起。
On September 15, Lehman Brothers' bankruptcy (largest corporate bankruptcy in 158 years) triggered the global financial crisis. Subprime contagion spread through derivatives; AIG was nationalized; the Fed bailed out; stocks dropped 50%. Obama's $787 billion stimulus + Dodd-Frank reforms followed. A decade of zero rates and QE globally; inequality worsened, populism rose.
11 月 4 日 Obama 以 365 票擊敗 McCain 173 當選第 44 任總統、首位非裔美國總統。被視為美國種族和解里程碑。8 年任期推 Affordable Care Act(歐記健保)、伊朗核協議、古巴關係正常化、巴黎氣候協定。但川普 2016 反撲、白人民粹反彈也由此醞釀。
On November 4, Obama defeated McCain 365-173 to become the 44th President and first African-American. Seen as a milestone of racial reconciliation. His 8-year tenure brought the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare), Iran nuclear deal, Cuba normalization, and Paris climate accord. But Trump's 2016 backlash and white populist resentment brewed here.
2010/1/12 海地首都太子港 7.0 級地震，約 30 萬死、150 萬無家可歸；國際援助與後續霍亂爭議。
On Jan 12, 2010, a M7.0 quake hit Port-au-Prince: ~300,000 dead, 1.5M homeless; aid efforts were shadowed by a later cholera outbreak.
11 月 8 日 Trump 以 306 票擊敗 Clinton 232 當選，是首位無政治或軍旅資歷的總統。Make America Great Again、反移民、反自由貿易、懷疑氣候變遷、退出巴黎協定/WHO。2021 年 1 月 6 日支持者衝進國會。2024 年再當選成第 47 任、史上第二位非連任回歸總統。
On November 8, Trump defeated Clinton 306-232 — the first president with no political or military experience. Make America Great Again, anti-immigration, anti-free-trade, climate skeptic, withdrew from Paris and WHO. On January 6, 2021, his supporters stormed the Capitol. Re-elected in 2024 as the 47th president — only the second non-consecutive returning president in history.
3 月 13 日 Trump 宣布國家緊急狀態。美國累計 120+ 萬死(全球最多)，佔世界死亡人數 1/6。封鎖 vs 開放、口罩 vs 反口罩、疫苗 vs 反疫苗成政治分裂新戰場。2020 年 5 月 George Floyd 被警殺引爆 BLM 運動。經濟刺激 6 兆美元、通膨暴走。Biden 2020.11 當選。
On March 13, Trump declared national emergency. US accumulated 1.2 million+ deaths (world's highest), 1/6 of global deaths. Lockdown vs. reopen, masks vs. anti-masks, vaccines vs. anti-vaccines became new political battlegrounds. In May 2020, George Floyd's police killing ignited Black Lives Matter. $6 trillion stimulus followed by raging inflation. Biden elected November 2020.